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Table 1 Main characteristics of the immune responses to C. burnetii infection occurring in the acute and chronic phases

From: Proteomics paves the way for Q fever diagnostics

Immune response

Acute phase

Chronic phase

Detection or exploration methods

Cells

T lymphocytes

Fewer T lymphocytes (CD4/CD8)

Flow cytometry

Total eradication of bacteria

No

No

qRT-PCR, qPCR

Granuloma formation

Yes

No, large vacuole

Immunohistochemistry

Detection of bacteria in granuloma/large vacuole

No, very weak

Yes

Immunohistochemistry and qRT-PCR, qPCR

Antibody production

IgG against phase I, IgM against phase II

IgG, IgM, IgA against both phase I and II

Serology (IFA)

Properties of monocytes from convalescent patients

Able to kill C. burnetii and migrate through the endothelium

Unable to kill C. burnetii or migrate through the endothelium

qRT-PCR, qPCR targeting C. burnetii, apoptosis detection (TUNEL assay)

Cytokines

IFN-γ and TNFα, mediated through TLR4 activation

IL-10

qRT-PCR targeting the specific cytokines

Immune response

Efficient

Deleterious

-

  1. IFA, immunofluorescence assay; IFN-γ, Interferon-gamma; IgG, Immunoglobulin G; IgM, Immunoglobulin M; IgA, Immunoglobulin A; IL-10, Interleukin 10; qRT-PCR, quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction; qPCR, quantitative polymerase chain reaction; TLR4, Toll-like receptor 4; TNFα, tumor necrosis factor α; TUNEL, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling.